Thursday, October 31, 2019

Staff Motivation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Staff Motivation - Essay Example In terms of the positive aspects of current campus culture and climate, Steve Jenkins is of the opinion that respect, experience, and diversity are of greatest value. Public education can still be improved though; Mr. Jenkins would remove big tests if he was given a chance to improve the education system. This is because these tests actually do not force students to memorize concepts over the long term because all that is required is a short-term result. All aspects of school life are evaluated regularly so that the system remains of a high quality. Two books that Mr. Jenkins would recommend to anyone who is looking for further professional development in leadership is ASCD – Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development and National Association of Secondary School Principals (NASSP) – Grades 6-12. One important piece of advice that Steve Jenkins would give is to read as much as you can, become a good listener, and don’t be afraid to ask as many question s as you wish.

Monday, October 28, 2019

Advantage and disadvantage of globalization Essay Example for Free

Advantage and disadvantage of globalization Essay Innovation ideas, which are suitable to adapt changeable customers’ preferences. With the development of technology, customers preferences are always updated due to global information transmit. Global Managers are capable to create more inventive products to keep and expand global markets. 2. Localization, which can avoid cultural conflict between local customers and global company, avoid future failure of investment of subsidiary of local company. Global managers must consider customizing products to comply with local national traits and policies. On-time follow-up, which is necessary to find and solve customers’ problems, renovate and meet their requirements, to update and improve the level of global marketing. Global managers are responsible for timely feedback to customizing products. Market segment, which is flexible for global manages to make differential marketing strategy for different products in different markets. Some products with lower price and higher frequency usage can be adapted standardization strategy, which some products with high price and lower frequency usage can be adapted customization strategy. High manufacturing costs. In order to adapt different customers preferences in different markets, global companies must put their products into different manufacturing process, or different testing system, or different package operation, etc. so that the products can be customized to sale in the global market. Unavoidable national barriers. Almost every country set national trade barriers or policies to protect local companies business. And some of countries have their own cultural and religious, own living habits, global companies are difficult to enter inside without any risks or discourages. Redundant market researches. Global companies have to contribute themselves into lots of market surveys and researches, because it can influence decisions among subsidiary market. However, without local questionnaires or face meeting, data collect and calculation, case study and comparison, etc. , global managers cannot finalize a new investment program carelessly.

Saturday, October 26, 2019

Sex Trafficking And Prostitution Criminology Essay

Sex Trafficking And Prostitution Criminology Essay Trafficking n its dictionary meaning, the concept of trafficking denotes a trade in something that should not be traded in. The concept of trafficking in people refers to the criminal practice of exploitation of human beings whereby humans are treated as commodities for profit, subjected to various forms of exploitation. Sex trafficking is a type of human trafficking The definition contains three main elements that constitute trafficking:  [1]   1.Acts- recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of a person. 2.Means Threat/use of force ,other forms of coercion, abduction, fraud, deception or abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability. 3. Purpose- Prostitution, forced labour or services, slavery , slavery like practices: servitude, organ trade. Trafficking involves the following: Movement of a person, with deception or coercion and into a situation of forced labour, prostitution slavery like practices: servitude. Trafficking can occur with or without crossing any international border. Prostitution is the sale of sexual services for money. prostitution the word itself speaks about the plight of the women. it is not a problem which exists in India but exists throughout the world. The Prostitution continued from ancient and medieval India and has taken a more gigantic outlook in modern India. India is one of the biggest market for prostitution in Asia with Mumbai alone Accommodating 200,000 prostitutes. The 1990s also witnessed a significant shift in the perception of flesh trade, by differentiating prostitution from trafficking, seeing it not merely as a moral or law enforcement problem, but as a human rights(including legal and democratic rights).violation linked to gender discriminate and disparity in development. Difference between trafficking and prostitution- often, trafficking is confused with prostitution. These are not synonymous. Trafficking is the process/ means while prostitution can be the result/end (of being trafficked). Trafficking is therefore the overall process while prostitution is the result. Human trafficking is the acquisition of people by improper means such as force, fraud or deception, with the aim of exploiting them.  [2]  Human trafficking has a history coterminous with that of society and has existed in various forms in almost all civilisations and cultures. It is a trade that exploits the vulnerability of human beings, especially women and children, in complete violation of their human rights, and makes them objects of financial transactions through the use of force and duress, whether for the purpose of sex, labour, slavery, or servitude. The concept of trafficking denotes a trade in something that should not be traded in. Human trafficking as defined by the UN is, the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of persons by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labour or service, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs.  [3]   Human trafficking includes sexual exploitation, labour trafficking, etc. Nowadays even cross-border human trafficking is prevalent. India has a huge population and because of that and our dwindling economy many people live below the poverty line. The smugglers and traffickers promise them a better life- a ray of hope, jobs as domestic servants, in the film world or in factories. They can offer them money, pleasure trip invitations or false promises of marriage. The main targets are the poor, helpless people are the ones who are exploited the most. Social and religious practices too have been a big cause. The recruiters are the first in the chain -procurer- they may be parents, neighbours, relatives or lovers or people who have been trafficked before. The procurers move to the potential sites for victims which mostly are the poverty-stricken areas where there has been no proper rehabilitation and then they haunt the bus stops, railway stations, streets, etc. The period they choose for trafficking depends on if that place has suffered a drought or social or political disasters recently, so that it would be easier to lure in the already suffering victims. The procurers use drugs, abduction, kidnapping, persuasion or deception to bag the targets. They hand the victims to the brothel owners, escort services, or managers of a sex establishment. Sex Trafficking: The Concept Women and children from developing countries, and from vulnerable parts of society in developed countries, are lured by promises of decent employment into leaving their homes and travelling to what they consider will be a better life. Victims are often provided with false travel documents and an organized network is used to transport them to the destination country, where they find themselves forced into sexual slavery and held in inhumane conditions and constant fear. In India, public debate on the issue of trafficking of women and children for commercial sexual exploitation emerged in the 1990s.  [4]  Trafficking of Human being is one of the gravest and worst forms of violation of the basic human rights. Besides the physical trauma mental injuries that the victim suffers in the process are often unbearable. Victims lead a life of complete despair with no hope to emerge out of their pathetic conditions and in this state of neglect lead their lives in completely inhumane conditions. The traffickers deprive the victims of their most basic human rights. Victims of sexual abuse are subjected to physical violence and sexual abuse, and are held under duress against their will. They receive low or no wages. Hence, they have little or no savings. This combined with indebtedness to the trafficker keeps them in a situation of debt bondage and slavery. What gives impetus and fuels this business of flesh trade is a situation where a victim of sex traffick ing is sold against her wishes to a brothel by her procurer and the money that the procurer gets in return for her is a debt which the victim is compelled to pay in order to earn her freedom. What adds on to this problem is that a victim is often uneducated and unaware of the debt on her and continues to work for years to come in the flesh market under the belief that one day she would earn her freedom by repaying this entire amount. The victims are forced to work in extremely harsh and inhumane conditions, in extremely long working hours with little or no time for rest and also in a state of total physical confinement and bondage similar to imprisonment and have little or no control over their own movement. They are subjected to poor living conditions with abysmal hygiene and sanitation facilities.  [5]  Their extremely pitiable state is intensified when a victim contracts various diseases, unwanted pregnancies, physical injuries etc. They are on a high risk of STD, AIDS, HIV, hepatitis, tuberculosis etc. Victims have no recourse to even the basic medical needs and facilities. Social stigma and ostracism is the other problem the victims of sex trafficking made to undergo. There is no acceptance for a victim in the society during her stay and even after it if someone tries and emerges out of the clutches of a trafficker. Victims of trafficking are not accepted even by their family members thereby leaving them with no hope to even to them emerge out of it as the prospects of social rehabilitation and acceptance into the society seem not quiet alluring to a victim. They are exposed to drugs and other addictions, and sometimes forcibly made addicts in order to ensure their continued dependence on the trafficker. Once the victim falls into a traffickers clutches, she will be exploited without any hope of redresal as long as she is capable of earning. After she becomes old or ill, or is infected with HIV/AIDS, the trafficker abandons her. He no longer arranges for her bail or pays the fine for her pleading guilty, and she is left alone to face trial and the due process of Law. Trafficking is an offence and the trafficker is liable to punishment, irrespective of the consent of the trafficked person. Other than the fact of being trafficked, the traffickers deprive the victims of their most basic human rights in the following manner  [6]   à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ They are subjected to physical violence and sexual abuse, and are held under duress against their will. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ They receive low or no wages. Hence, they have little or no savings. This combined with indebtedness to the trafficker keeps them in a situation of debt bondage and slavery.  [7]   à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ They are forced to work extremely long hours in inhuman working conditions leaving little time for rest. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ They live in conditions of physical confinement similar to imprisonment and have little or no control over their own movement. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ They are subjected to poor living conditions with abysmal hygiene and sanitation facilities. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The trafficker restricts their access to health or medical facilities. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ They face social stigma and social ostracism in their daily lives and as a result undergo constant humiliation. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ They are exposed to drugs and other addictions, and sometimes forcibly made addicts in order to ensure their continued dependence on the trafficker. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ They face a continuous assault on their physical, psychological, and emotional health. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ They face health risks such as physical injury, STD, HIV/AIDS, unwanted pregnancies, repeated abortions, gynaecological diseases, tuberculosis, and other disease. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ They also face harassment from the police and prosecution, and convicted by the judicial system under the ITPA. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ When they are no longer in a position to earn, they are abandoned and even the families who lived off their earnings do not support them à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Children of women in prostitution, especially daughters, are prone to being trafficked themselves. They have no access to education and basic needs of life 1.1 Reasons for Trafficking Trafficking occurs not only for prostitution/commercial sexual exploitation. Women and children are trafficked for several other purposes, some of include: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Forced labour, including bonded child labour, in the carpet, garment, and other industries/factories/worksites.  [8]   à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Forced or bonded domestic work may be bought and sold or forced to work in inhuman and violent conditions that include sexual abuse.  [9]   à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Forced labour in construction sites with little or no wages.  [10]   à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Forced employment in the entertainment industry, including bars, massage parlours, and similar establishments. In addition to poor or no pay and bad living conditions, sexual harassment is common. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Children are sometimes trafficked for begging. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Organ trade such as sale of kidneys.  [11]   à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Fraudulent or forced marriage: this includes sham, fraudulent, and illegal marriages, entered into by the man, residing in India or abroad, with the criminal intention of sexually exploiting the woman. Mail order brides where women are purchased or lured with false promises of a marriage abroad and subsequently recruited into prostitution is also a form of trafficking. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Camel jockeying often involves the sale of young children who are tied on a camels back for racing. Children are often badly hurt or killed in such races. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Purchase and sale of babies for adoption, both within the country and abroad, against established laws and procedures for adoption. 1.2 Causes There are several factors that lead to trafficking of women and children or cause them to become victims of trafficking. These factors can be broadly classified into two categories: supply factors and demand factors Supply Factors à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Abject poverty sometimes forces parents to sell their children to traffickers. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Harmful cultural practices often make women and children extremely vulnerable. Child marriage is sometimes the route for a child to be trafficked for sexual purposes. The stigma attached to single, widowed, and abandoned women, or second wives through bigamous marriages, causes such women to be abandoned by society. They become easy targets for traffickers. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Female illiteracy and lack of access to education by girls. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Male unemployment and loss of family income puts pressure on women to earn and support the family. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Natural calamities and poor rehabilitation of disaster victims puts pressure on women to earn and support the family. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Dysfunctional families or families that have difficulty functioning and communicating in emotionally healthy ways; a family that has a negative environment, which contributes little to the personal development and growth of family members.  [12]   à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Desertion by one or the other parent, uncared for or abandoned children. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Traditional practices give social legitimacy to trafficking. These include the Devadasi and Jogin traditions where Devadasis are often trafficked and sexually exploited. This is equally applicable to other communities such as the Nats, Kanjars, and Bedias where traditionally girls are made to earn through prostitution. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Porous borders. Weak law enforcement and inefficient and corrupt policing of the borders ensure that women from neighbouring countries are brought into India and forced into prostitution in different towns. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Clandestine nature of the crime and weak law enforcement. The crime does not come to light very often because of its clandestine nature. Victims are unable to access justice and even when they attempt to do so, weak law enforcement enables the traffickers to escape. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Urban opportunities. Many women are either lured by false promises of jobs in urban areas or they voluntarily migrate to urban areas on hearing about the opportunities in cities from their neighbours and friends. When a woman is pushed into prostitution due to these causes, the issue of consent of the trafficked person is not relevant. Even if a woman knows that she is being trafficked and gives her full consent, it does not absolve the trafficker of guilt. Trafficking is an offence irrespective of the womans consent (Sections 5 and 6 of the Immoral Traffic(Prevention) Act, 1956). Demand Factors à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Rising male migration to urban areas and demand for commercial sex. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Growth of tourism, which sometimes indirectly encourages sex tourism. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Scare of HIV/AIDS and prevalent myths on sexuality and STDs (Sexually Transmitted Diseases) leads to greater demand for newer and younger girls. The number of trafficked girls thus increases and their age decreases. 1.3 Concerns on Trafficking in India In the constitution of India Trafficking is prohibited.  [13]  Yet India is the Destination, source and transit for human trafficking primarily for commercial sexual exploitation, forced labour and with the falling sex ratio trafficking for marriages has become another factor for trafficking women and young girls. Trafficking of persons across the borders of Punjab and Bangladesh is not a cumbersome process, also Indias Policy of an open border with Nepal has made it difficult to identify trafficking.  [14]   There are a number of factors which are responsible for influencing trafficking of women and young girls in India. Women and young girls may be trafficked in India due to cultural practices and also because of poverty. Cultural Practices include the Devdasi System which is still prevalent in some parts of India as shown in a 2004 report by the National Human Rights Commission of the Government of India.  [15]  There are again many women who willingly migrate to the middle East, Europe and the United States to work as domestic labor who are defrauded by the placement agencies and sometimes trafficked. Women and Children trafficked within India are kept in conditions of involuntary servitude with characteristics such as withholding payment of wages, confiscation of travel documents non- adherence to conditions of work, inordinate profits to middle man. India is also a destination country for persons from Bangladesh and Nepal, and a bulk of those trafficked from these countries are women and children. In both cases the initial migration legal, illegal may be voluntary and subsequently migrants may be trafficked for sexual exploitation or any other factor. The numbers are very large, though precise figures are lacking and need to be tackled urgently. The 2010 Trafficking in persons Report  [16]  also points out that ninety percent of the trafficked persons belong to the most disadvantaged groups. It also carried evidence of NGO reports on duping of girls from north east India with Promises of jobs and then forcing them into prostitution as well as forced marriages. This heinous crime needs to be addressed urgently. There are legislations which deal with criminalizing a number of offences which are not specifically dealt with in the ITPA. These include penalizing acts such as procuring, buying and selling of human beings importing or exporting human beings, buying and selling minors, coercing or forcing marriage of minors, kidnapping and abducting and using force for the purpose of trafficking, slavery and slavery like conditions and unacceptable form of labor. A chart detailing miscellaneous legislations relevant to trafficking is given below.  [17]   LEGISLATIONS SECTION DETAILS OF THE PROVISION Indian Penal Code,1860 366 Kidnapping ,abducting or inducing a women to compel marriage. 366A Procuring a minor girl 366B Importation of a girl below 21 for sexual exploitation. 367 Kidnapping/abducting to subject person to grievous hurt, slavery. 370 Buying or disposing of a person as slave. 371 Habitual dealing in slaves. 372 Selling minor for prostitution 373 Buying minor for prostitution 374 Compelling a person to labour. Prohibition of Child Marriage Act,2006 12 Child marriage void if after that the minor is sold or trafficked or used for immoral purposes. Children (Pledging of Labour) Act,1933 4-6 Penalties for pledging labour of children(under 15 years) Bonded Labour System(Abolition )Act,1976 16 Compelling a person to render bonded labour or forced labour. Juvenile Justice Act,2000 2(vii) A child in need of care and protection includes one who is vulnerable and likely to be trafficked. 26 Procuring juveniles for hazardous employment. Trafficking and organised crime as defined by the law in India.- for the purpose of understanding cross border trafficking, especially in the context of organised crime, there are two definitions that need to be analysed, wiz, trafficking and organised crimes. How India defines and engages with these two terms is an indicator of the legal protection given to combat trafficking as an organised crime. Domestic Law of India There is no current central legislation in India with regard to organized crime. Some States however have legislated on the same. Maharashtra, which was the first State to have an Act,  [18]  defines organized crime as any continuing unlawful activity by an individual, singly or jointly, either as a member of an organized crime syndicate or on behalf of such syndicate, by use of violence or threat of violence or intimidation or coercion or other unlawful means, with the objective of gaining pecuniary benefits, or gaining undue economic or other advantage for himself or any other person, or promoting insurgency.  [19]   In the absence of a specific law on organized crime, reliance is placed on general provisions in criminal law dealing with common intention to commit an offence  [20]  , criminal conspiracy  [21]  and abetment. Anti-corruption laws may also be used. India has addressed trafficking both directly and indirectly in its Constitution. There are three Articles spread over Fundamental Rights in Part III and Directive Principles of State Policy in Part IV which address trafficking related issues. The chart below summarizes the provisions. Provisions on Trafficking in the Constitution of India  [22]   Article 23 Fundamental Right prohibiting trafficking in human beings and forms of forced labor. Article 39(e) Directive Principle of State Policy directed at ensuring that health and strength of individuals are not abused and that no one is forced by economic necessity to do work unsuited to their age or strength.. Article 39(f) Directive Principle of State Policy stating that childhood and youth should be protected against exploitation. India has a written Constitution, and though the above provisions make Indias mandate on trafficking clear, penalizing and tackling trafficking is dealt with by legislation. The Constitution specifically mentions trafficking in human beings as well as forced labor and also indicates the special protection to be provided to vulnerable groups in society. The Constitution of India discusses provisions on trafficking at two levels one, at the level of Fundamental Rights which are basic rights available to all, irrespective of caste, creed, sex, place of birth, etc., and two, at the level of Directive Principles of State Policy. Fundamental Rights are justiciable and can be directly enforced in a court of law, whereas Directive Principles of State Policy are non-justiciable and cannot be directly enforced in a Court of Law. However, Directive Principles play a major role in shaping the policy of the State and may sometimes be the basis that legislation is built on. As a Fundamental Right in Article 23, trafficking in human beings is prohibited as are all forms of forced labor. According to Directive Principles of State Policy in Articles 39(e) and (f), the health and strength of workers should not be abused. It prohibits exploitation of persons to perform work which is unsuitable for them. It also specifically protects children and you th against exploitation of any kind. While the provisions in the Directive Principles of State Policy do not mention trafficking, it mentions exploitation which is a key element in trafficking. 1.4 International legislation History of international legislation International pressure to address trafficking in women and children became a growing part of the social Reform movement in the United States and Europe during the late 19th century. International legislation against the trafficking of women and children began with the ratification of an international convention in 1901, followed by ratification of a second convention in 1904. These conventions were ratified by 34 countries. The first formal international research into the scope of the problem was funded by American philanthropist John D. Rockefeller, through the American Bureau of Social Hygiene  [23]  . In 1923, a committee from the bureau was tasked with investigating trafficking in 28 countries, interviewing approximately 5,000 informants and analyzing information over two years before issuing its final report. This was the first formal report on trafficking in women and children to be issued by an official body. The League of Nations, formed in 1919, took over as the international coordinator of legislation intended to end the trafficking of women and children. An international Conference on White Slave Traffic was held in 1921, attended by the 34 countries that ratified the 1901 and 1904 conventions. Another convention against trafficking was ratified by League members in 1922, and like the 1904 international convention, this one required ratifying countries to submit annual reports on their progress in tackling the problem. Compliance with this requirement was not complete, although it gradually improved: in 1924, approximately 34% of the member countries submitted reports as required, which rose to 46% in 1929, 52% in 1933, and 61% in 1934. 1921 International Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Women and Children (sponsored by the League of Nations) Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others (United Nations General Assembly resolution, came into force in 1951) Current international laws Convention on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage, and Registration of Marriages, entered into force in 1964 Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children; and Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air. ILO Forced Labour Convention, 1930 (No. 29) ILO Abolition of Forced Labour Convention, 1957 (No. 105) ILO Minimum Age Convention, 1973 (No. 138) ILO Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999 (No. 182) CHAPTER-II :: LEGAL FRAMEWORK AND POLICIES 2.1 Definition of Trafficking Article 3 of the UN Protocol to Prevent, Suppress, and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children, supplementing the UN Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime, 2000, states: Trafficking in Persons shall mean the recruitment, transportation, transfer,harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labour or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery,servitude or the removal of organs.  [24]   Article 1 (3), SAARC Convention on Preventing and Combating Trafficking in Women and Children for Prostitution, signed by India on January 5, 2002, states: Trafficking means the moving, selling or buying of women and children for prostitution within and outside a country for monetary or other considerations with or without the consent of the of the person subjected to trafficking  [25]  . Article 1 (4) of the SAARC Convention defines Traffickers as: Traffickers means persons, agencies or institutions engaged in any form of trafficking. Article 34 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) states: States Parties undertake to protect the Child from all forms of sexual exploitation and sexual abuse. For these purposes, States Parties shall in particular take all appropriate national, bilateral and multilateral measures to prevent: (a) The inducement or coercion of a child to engage in any lawful sexual activity; (b) The exploitative use of children in prostitution or other unlawful sexual practices; (c) The exploitative use of children in pornographic performances and materials. Further, Article 35 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child states: States Parties shall take all appropriate national, bilateral and multilateral measures to prevent the abduction of, the sale of or traffic in children for any purpose or in any form. The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956 (ITPA) does not specifically define trafficking. However, the ingredients of trafficking, such as sexual exploitation and abuse of persons; running of a brothel; living on the earnings of a prostitute; procuring, inducing or taking a person for the sake of prostitution; detaining a person for prostitution, etc., are contained in Sections 3, 4, 5, 6, and 8 of the Act. In the ITPA, (amended in 1978 and 1986), even though trafficking is not yet defined in accordance with the UN Protocol, To Prevent, Suppress, and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime or as per the SAARC Convention on Preventing and Combating Trafficking in Women and Children for Prostitution, the essential ingr

Thursday, October 24, 2019

Globalisation and the Australian Economy Essay -- essays research pape

The Impact of Globalisation on the Australian Economy Globalisation is not new. Australia has been involved in trade, investment, financial flows, technology transfers and the migration of labour since its foundation as a colony. What has changed is the size, direction and influence of these transfers, especially since 1980. There are a number of factors that have aided this transformation. They include: †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The expansion of new markets – foreign exchange and capital markets are linked globally. They operate 24 hours a day with dealings any where in the world possible in real time. Financial deregulation and the floating of the Australian dollar since 1983 intensified the impact of globalisation on the Australian economy. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  New technology and the tools of globalisation – the internet, email, mobile phones, media and communication networks have all sped up the process of globalisation. They have increased the spread and speed of knowledge transfer and communication. Australian consumers can buy products from any nation in the world, transfer funds between accounts or purchase shares in any major market. Australian businesses can market their products at a fraction of the cost and be exposed to a global market place of competition. This potentially is the closest we will ever come to the perfect market. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  New institutional players – The World Trade Organisation (WTO) has growing authority over national governments, as does the IMF with its restrictions and controls it can impose on nations requiring assistance. Multinational corporations have more economic power than many nations. Hedge funds and financial dealers are able to manipulate financial flows and subsequently exchange rates, leaving nations helpless in their wake. This in turn renders traditional economic policy tools virtually useless. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  New rules and restrictions – Multilateral agreements on trade, services and intellectual property rights, backed by strong enforcement mechanisms, reduce the scope for national governments to develop their own economic policies. What is Globalisation? Globalisation is the growing economic interdependence among nations as reflected in increasing actual movement across nations of: †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Trade †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Inv... ...ly be quite effective at pushing the Australian dollar down by selling the currency, it is very limited in pushing it up. The RBA only has its limited foreign reserves to buy the Australian dollar. The value of Australia's foreign reserves fell from $22billion US in December 1999 to $16billion US in September 2000. The amount of Australian dollars traded in one day in Australia's foreign exchange market exceeds its total foreign reserves. As was seen in the Asian crisis in 1997 in Thailand, running down foreign reserves will not always halt a currency decline. The US Federal Reserve is probably the only central bank that can strongly influence the decisions of fund managers. The financial traders and dealers seek a low inflation, low interest rate, low current account deficit, high growth, budget surpluses and small public sector. If the Government does not achieve these policies, the markets will punish it. If they do achieve them, the markets may still punish them. Any way you look at it, Australia is integrated into the globalised world economy and is dependent on the activities and policies of globalisation. Australia’s future will move with the ebb and flow of globalisation.

Wednesday, October 23, 2019

Urban deprivation is one of the characteristics of large cities in all parts of the world

The inner city areas of many Global cities have an image of decay with poverty, pollution, crime, overcrowding, poor housing conditions and unemployment. Such problems are more prevalent in inner-city areas than in other areas of the city. Deprivation has been caused by old industries closing down and increasing the unemployment levels which are not tackled due to the old workers not being skilled enough to work in these new factories or line of jobs. This happens more in MEDC's compared to LEDC's where overpopulation and urbanization have cause the problems in the inner city. Counterurbanization has been another problem within MEDC's as it has left houses derelict and the people would rather commute than live in the inner city. This has then led to out of town shopping centers being set up. In MEDC's the inner city initiatives for reversing the decline of the inner city started back in 1945 with comprehensive redevelopment. This program involved large-scale clearance of old terraces in order to provide space for new housing and inner city environmental features. Over twenty years 1. 5 million properties wee knocked down in the inner city. Elswick and Kenton in Newcastle were two areas embarked for comprehensive redevelopment. Existing residents were moved either into new towns of Cramlington or to extensive council houses estates built in areas such as, Byker. Many local authorities followed identical planning and soon the landscape of the inner city was transformed with huge concrete and glass tower blocks separated by flat expanses of grass. At the time these high-rise flats were a great success architecturally however the policy failed due to redevelopment underachieving demolition. This gave a housing shortage and vast spaces of derelict land. This policy that lasted till 1967 also failed to tackle the social and economic problems. 1968 saw another scheme come into action; the Urban Aid programme gave grants to local authorities to expand services in deprived areas and to establish community development projects using self help. This scheme was a great deal more localized and it was unfortunate that the economic downturn limited the funds and therefore by 1977 the scheme had finished. The next year the new towns policy was abandoned in an effort to stop decentralization of people and businesses. For the first time inner cities were officially declared problem areas. In 1988 Margaret Thatcher introduced the â€Å"Action for cities† policy. From 1991 onwards-Local authorities were able to bid for funds for specific urban projects. An example is Sunderland; the money was used to redesign parts of the city center with a new shopping precinct. And bus station. A single government department, the end of the 1990's had created the Urban Regeneration Agency. In Greater Manchester 4. 5 hectares of the city were destroyed with 30,000 homes left damaged form the bombing of World War II. By the end of the war 70,000 homes were deemed unfit for living mostly in the high density Victorian inner center. The plan for Manchester was launched in 1945 with the aim of clearing all Victorian housing. Following the repair of the war the Manchester Slum Clearance Programme restarted in 1954. Over five years 7500 properties were demolished mostly in the Miles Platting area. In 1961 the policy of comprehensive development took place with the clearance programme expanding in four main areas: Hulme, Beswick, Longsight and Harpurhey. Over 55,00 new houses, a mixture of low and high rise were built to replaced the cleared terraces reducing the housing density and population by up to 50% in some areas. The Hulme area was a typical Victorian area of Manchester and was tightly packed with terraces. Conditions were overcrowded and polluted with few housing having toilets. After the demolition of the terraces, shopping facilities were introduced in three areas. By 1972 the redevelopment of Hulme was completed with 5,000 new houses being built. Problems did arise with new properties leaking and then the heating bills were too high for the residents and many found the accommodation inappropriate. This area fell into a spiral of decline with growing unemployment, drugs and violence along with eh deteriorating environment. The Hulme city challenge was launched in 1992. This plan involved building of 3000 new homes, shops, roads, offices and community facilities to replace existing properties in a 60-hectare area. The funds of i200 million came from the government, local authority and private finance. Manchester faced other problems form the closure of the nineteenth century industries that left 24,000 jobs unavailable between 1974 and 1984. Plans included 2000 new houses and 375,000 square meters of industrial and commercial floor space to provide 10,000 jobs. In 1988 central Manchester was given n UDC to regenerate 200 hectares of land and buildings in the southern part of the city center. This area included six conservation areas, over ninety listed buildings, three universities, the Granada Studios Tour and the Museum of Science and Industry. However these were the areas of contaminated land, derelict warehouses, mills and canals. The IDC ended in 1996 and in the eight years of operation invested i420 million. Urban deprivation in the LEDC's have been tackled in many ways however there have been schemes that have proven to be a lot more successful than the others. In Chennai there has been a rapid increase in population due to the rural to urban migration and the high birth rates. About one third of the population lives in the slums, mostly shantytowns. The planning solutions began with the building of four to six storey blocks however these largely failed due to high maintenance and lack of uptake as the tenants would be unable to afford the rent. If the rent were reduced the scheme would lose money. After this initial failure The Board took up a new idea of upgrading the slums. The aims set were providing one bath and one toilet per ten families; one public fountain per twenty families; one street light per forty meters of road and one pre school per two hundred families. Other initiatives required self-help financing after an initial investment had been made either by the World Bank or welfare organizations. These schemes encouraged greater community involvement. Some of the start up loans were gave to families to build their own homes. Site and service schemes were implemented with finance provided for the acquisition of land; purchase of building materials, road building and the provision of basic services such as, water and sewage. New owners were then responsible for building the property on their allocated land. The upgrading after that often led to the sale of homes to higher income groups. The generated some money for the poor families and allowed the Board to re-invest in new schemes. An area in the southern outskirts of Chennai was the location for a site and services scheme known as Velacheri. It provided fourteen hectares of land to house 2,640 families many of whom were being forced out of Chennai. Waiting for the new residents building their homes would have caused a delayed the rail building so contractors were used to begin the building of properties. Along with the roads, water supply, streetlights and many other services. These services did face problems with many being left unfinished and extra floors being added without regulation. Some families sold their home for profit and the poorest were unable to afford these houses. These are some example of the initiatives being taken in order to solve the problem of urban deprivation. However there have been many other schemes and one of the most successful was that of the Favelas in Brazil redevelopment that won several prizes such as, the famous Habitat Award from the United Nations. These have been more successful as it didn't break up the families and kept the community spirit and the families could continue to access their place of employment. The similarities between the initiatives of the MEDC and LEDC worlds that have been undertaken for there reduction of urban deprivation are not all that similar. This is due to the fact that the MEDC's have more finance so there are able to use other schemes to tackle their problems. Also the fact that the problems they face are of a different cause. In the LEDC's it tends to be shanty towns are therefore have to look to house these people unlike the MEDC it not so overcrowding but unemployment due to the decline of the Industrial Revolution and recently Counterurbanization has left old Victorian buildings derelict and an eye-saw.

Tuesday, October 22, 2019

Sucide Rates Still Rising essays

Sucide Rates Still Rising essays Committing suicide should not be the answer to solving life's harsh problems as a teenager. Although you may be fundamentally unstable, there are many other ways to reduce stress or to help depression. Clinically depressed adolescents are five times more likely to attempt suicide that their non-depressed peers, according to a 15-year study that tracked 73 percent depressed adolescents and compared them with peers who were not clinically depressed. Being depressed is not a reasonable excuse to want to kill yourself. But on the other hand, a person with an extreme amount of so-called "problems" would think otherwise. If a teenager has access to a gun and/or is depressed of course the thought of shooting themselves in the head will run through their mind. Teenagers feel the need to take risks and they constantly see violence on television. A lot of the times, parents seem to have a strong effect on a teenagers suicidal thoughts. The pressure to get grades and the breakdown of a traditional family contribute to suicide. But will killing yourself be the answer. In the past few decades, suicide rates among 10-14 year olds have nearly doubled say federal statisticians. Also for every one teenager who commits suicide, 100 more will try and every year, one in 13 high school students attempts suicide, a 1997 funded Youth Risk Behavior survey found. This basically says that at least one student per classroom will attempt to kill themselves for thoughtless reasons. Never does a teenager take into account that death is final, they see suicide as an end of their problems rather than existence. There are many other alternatives to suicide if you really have that many problems. You could just as easily pick up a phone and get help as you could pick up a gun and shoot yourself. It's just a matter of thinking through the situation rather that acting on ...

Monday, October 21, 2019

Early Colonial Courtship Rituals

Early Colonial Courtship Rituals Colonial CourtshipCourtship in the colonies was a strictly supervised tradition based only upon proper appearances and what the colonists knew from their (or their relatives') previous lives in England. Although not highly regarded because of the tremendous lustful temptations involved, many colonists viewed it as a necessary evil that would produce marriages that would eventually bring the ever-desired "healthy family" situations (i.e. many children) that supposedly gave character to the colonies, especially in the south.A colonial courtship did not really begin until the process of finding a match had been completed to the satisfaction of the town's standards. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, English methods of matchmaking were, for the most part, divided into two categories: higher class and lower class. Because the higher classes were rich and often had much political power, they were allowed by their own political standards to find matches more freely than those i n the lower classes.English: Male (right) and female (left) Phidippus ...Therefore, many sons and daughters of the higher classes were able to make a match through love, as long as their chosen lover was one of proper consequence. This potential spouse was evaluated by the mother and father, and if seen to be of proper financial security and political position, the match would be readily agreed to. However, in lower classes, the majority of marriages were arranged by well-meaning parents wishing to give their children the best possible life. Since many of the colonists in the New World were not rich and supported themselves through farming or industry work, their matchmaking were grounded in those of the English lower classes.The social aspects of courtship in the colonies varied from region to region. In New England, where its influences were highly Puritan, a courtship would be conducted during town get-togethers and church-coordinated events...

Sunday, October 20, 2019

Free Essays on Greek Philosophy

‘Greek’ Reflection Paper What are morals? Does everyone have morals? If so, what morals are just and what morals are unjust? Is it just to kill someone even if your life is in danger? Is it just for a professional basketball player to play for the money and not for the love of the game? These are some questions that you should ask yourself when thinking about what is morally right and what is morally wrong. Everyone has different morals and beliefs about everything. My morals are doing what is best. If my life was in danger and it came down to killing someone, I would kill that person. I am not going to just stand there and let that person kill me. If I had something to defend myself, like a gun, I would use it to the best of my ability to protect myself from any harm. Another strong belief that I have is about cheating. If I had the chance to cheat on a test I would not do it. I feel that I am in school to learn and to plan my future. Cheating off someone’s test would not help me or benefit my needs anymore than failing the test. I would learn more by failing the test, to see what I missed and what I needed to study more, than to cheat. There are four reasons why we should behave justly. 1) To avoid punishment. (Benko, notes) If we behave unjustly we will soon be punished for those acts and most human beings don’t like to be punished in any way. People will kill themselves to avoid punishment. 2) If we could get away with crimes, we would commit them. (Benko, notes) If we knew that we could get away with killing someone we would have a major decrease in population. Today so many people have so much hate for one another that if we could just go outside and kill someone, just because we didn’t like them, then we would. 3) The truly unjust person would have to be perceived as just. To be truly unjust, he or she woul... Free Essays on Greek Philosophy Free Essays on Greek Philosophy ‘Greek’ Reflection Paper What are morals? Does everyone have morals? If so, what morals are just and what morals are unjust? Is it just to kill someone even if your life is in danger? Is it just for a professional basketball player to play for the money and not for the love of the game? These are some questions that you should ask yourself when thinking about what is morally right and what is morally wrong. Everyone has different morals and beliefs about everything. My morals are doing what is best. If my life was in danger and it came down to killing someone, I would kill that person. I am not going to just stand there and let that person kill me. If I had something to defend myself, like a gun, I would use it to the best of my ability to protect myself from any harm. Another strong belief that I have is about cheating. If I had the chance to cheat on a test I would not do it. I feel that I am in school to learn and to plan my future. Cheating off someone’s test would not help me or benefit my needs anymore than failing the test. I would learn more by failing the test, to see what I missed and what I needed to study more, than to cheat. There are four reasons why we should behave justly. 1) To avoid punishment. (Benko, notes) If we behave unjustly we will soon be punished for those acts and most human beings don’t like to be punished in any way. People will kill themselves to avoid punishment. 2) If we could get away with crimes, we would commit them. (Benko, notes) If we knew that we could get away with killing someone we would have a major decrease in population. Today so many people have so much hate for one another that if we could just go outside and kill someone, just because we didn’t like them, then we would. 3) The truly unjust person would have to be perceived as just. To be truly unjust, he or she woul...

Saturday, October 19, 2019

CRITICAL THINKINKG Annotated Bibliography Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

CRITICAL THINKINKG - Annotated Bibliography Example From the survey, only 505 boys and 390 girls had the acceptable levels of fat content in their skins. The research measured the fat content in three major skinfolds which were the triceps, abdominal fat and subscapular fat. The research indicates that 14.3% of all boys examined were centrally obese, whereas 18.2% fell in the same criterion. The research which largely centers on BMI of children indicates that childhood obesity is a central cause of adulthood obesity. Rawlins, E, Baker, G, Maynard, M, & Harding, S 2013, Perceptions of healthy eating and physical activity in an ethnically diverse sample of young children and their parents: the DEAL prevention of obesity study, Journal of Human Nutrition & Dietetics, 26, 2, pp. 132-144 This research focuses on obesity among children between the ages of 8 and 13 years. The research assesses the dietary intakes of 70 children, 31 male and 39 female. The research equally compared the results from the survey to the interviews of 43 parents, 34 of whom were mothers and the remaining 9 were single or divorced fathers. Rawlins et al (2013), show that the lack of education on healthy living in the school curriculum, in the UK and the rest of the world, is the core cause of morbid and central obesity among students. However, the research also focused on ethic and cultural education or dietary preference and the linkage between ethnicity and obesity among students in the United Kingdom. In addition to ethnicity, social-economic backgrounds were a variable used in the research. The paper concludes that diversity in most cultural frameworks shaped the lifestyle of children in various schools due to the peer influence. In the UK, as Penn and Kerr (2014) present, 30% of all children aged 2-25 years are obese. The paper further indicated that obesity in early childhood translated in increased risk of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease and cancer later in life.

Friday, October 18, 2019

The Italian Feminist Movement in the 1970s Research Paper

The Italian Feminist Movement in the 1970s - Research Paper Example An Italian Feminist Movement took place during the 1970s and this movement led to women being considered not only equal to men but also provided them with their right of choice (Torre 2010). The Italian Feminist movement did not just begin in the 1970s but it transpired through a series of events which had started years ago. One of the pioneers of this movement is considered to be Anna Maria Mozzoni, the founder of the League for the Advancement of Women’s Rights in 1881. She urged the women of Italy to fight for their own rights and not rely on the system. During her time, women did not come out of their homes due to discrimination and advancements and modernization had not laid their effects on Italy (Sarti 2004). At that time women still were speechless and did not have their own voice, and had to rely on the patriarchal symbolic framework, an underlined aspect of Italian culture. This was the aspect which was fought by numerous activists later to come such as Anna Kuliscio ff. She was a famous political activist who through her rebellion nature fought long and hard against the system. Becoming the first woman lecturer at Milan University, she argued against the male dominance in the Italian society. For Kuliscioff, Italian women needed to achieve freedom and equality by challenging the family system which led to an oppressive culture against women. She also fought against the Italian rules which did not allow the females to cast a vote. The entire movement against women oppression faced a setback with the rise of Fascism in Italy. The National Fascist Party was led by Benito Mussolini. Their ideology was led by the notion that considered women as mothers and wives. To fulfill the Fascist dream of creating a new Italy, it was a must that women perform their roles as child bearers. Females were sidelined in the political sector and they were not granted proper rights in their working organizations, as according to them the role of women was to concentra te on performing their duties as mothers. That is why in this era abortion and divorce were criminalized (Ancora et al2006). Union Donne Italiana (UDI) was formed in September 1944 by a coalition of women from the southern province which was at that time liberated by the Allies and from the women of anti-Fascist resistance movement. UDI struggled for the rights of women in the postwar period. After the war, women were enfranchised which was one of the most notable political gain for women. Women exercised their right to vote first time in 1946 elections. UDI started their weekly publication by the name of Noi Donne (We women). Although Noi Donne was influenced by Italian communist party, PCI,it did not lay emphasis on political issues and emphasized primarily on women’s work rights and their needs at home. In the 1970’s, a different and more aggressive group of feminists arose with a strong political orientation and set of beliefs. This was owing to the formation of Ne w Left, the student revolts in 1968-69, the changing values of personal freedom and gaining equal status in society, and the motivation of self-fulfillment. The new issues to be addressed now were family rights, divorce, birth control, abortion and sexual violence. The new feminist group which was profoundly focused on women autonomy in all its social relations appealed only to the radical feminists and left the traditional feminists and their political allies with

Preoperative Fasting Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Preoperative Fasting - Research Proposal Example Patients will therefore be challenged to add personal efforts such as exercising to help them recover quicker. This can be tested by comparing two patients – one who exercises and another who does not. This hypothesis is interesting to me because it helps in making the work of the practitioner quite easier. This hypothesis will defeat any beliefs associated with level of recovery and gender. Rather, patients will be educated that for them to recover quickly, they need to pay frequent attention to their medications. This will be measured by assessing the recovering rates of people of both genders who take their medications in given format. This hypothesis will challenge patients to keep to nursing instructions without putting their trust in the experience of the nurses. There could be both qualitative and quantitative testing of the hypothesis as the working years of nurses can be calculated but then the compliance and recovering rate in patients must be done qualitatively (Kerlinger, 1986). This is an interesting hypothesis that will make patients responsible to complaining to nursing instructions. This hypothesis will promote monitored treatment to smoking addiction at the hands of health professional. This is because the level of recovery from smoking, if tested to be more efficient at the hands of professional will win more patients to following that path (Heppner, Kivlighan, and Wampold,

Soft Systems Thinking vs. Hard Systems Thinking Essay

Soft Systems Thinking vs. Hard Systems Thinking - Essay Example Both have specific applications and uses for us humans who constantly learn from using these systems thinking. Systems thinking is a rather new concept and one that analyzes a given specific question relating to human systems or systems that involves humans in some other way. This study explores the various quirks and advantages of using these ways of thinking. It also explores how systems can be applied anywhere from everyday, mundane things to the most complicated problems ever. Systems thinking can be though of as a train of ideas and procedures that can help lessen our burden in problem solving if properly executed. Thus with this knowledge, a firm understanding is needed on how these systems work and function to the arrival of a solution. Given today's global problems, our world leaders have utilized time and again that systems thinking does work and the benefits outweighs the negative feedback from these. This study was. To compare and contrast the two different types of thinki ng systems and the way they influence our lives. This paper also manages to determine the details behind these concepts and also to have a better understanding of what systems thinking is all about and it's relevance to our modern society where problems are as common as anything else under thee sun. With this, all that if for you dear reader to go on and find out how these ways of thinking works. The term system is der... Also, one or more components may or may or may not have independent or alternate functions, but they are still part of the same system. Examples of systems are committees within a civic group, the various body organ systems, the ecosystem, socio-economic systems etc. Systems can either be natural such as the ecosystem and the body organ systems or they may be artificial such as electronic systems and farms ("What is system thinking" 2004). For a system to work, each of its components must work together in order to produce something. Its elements must complement each other and must have a certain synergy between them. Elements in a system may have direct or indirect relationships with each other. There are also system types that can be considered as open or closed. An open system's production and function can be influenced by the external environment or it can have an influence on the environment. A closed environment on the other hand is independent and may not be influenced by the external environment or it does not have an influence on the environment. Another classification of systems is physical and conceptual systems. Physical systems are systems are systems that exists materially that it, it has form, mass and is generally tangible. Conceptual systems exist theoretically and do not have form, mass or any other physical characteristic. Conceptual systems are often used for the visualization of certain ideas ("Sys tem", 2006). Another classification of systems is living or biological systems which are composed of living elements or organisms themselves, interacting or performing various functions as a whole. Non-living systems composed of the environment and

Thursday, October 17, 2019

E-Cigarettes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

E-Cigarettes - Essay Example Article number one, â€Å"Use of E- Cigarettes Rises Sharply Among Teenagers, Report says† by Sabrina Tavernise and article number two, â€Å"Teens use e-cigarettes for ‘dripping,’ study says† By Susan Scutti both cover the topic of E-Cigarettes usage. In the articles, the authors both include data, research, opinions, and more. Writers Sabrina Tavernise and Susan Scutti use many strategies to persuade and pass a meaningful message to the readers. Each article covers the facts and data of E-Cigarette usage as well as portraying the message that their simply just isn’t enough data and research collected yet on the topic. Although article number two leans more towards the innocent positive side of the topic, from my understanding both authors weren’t sure if E-Cigarettes had a positive or negative effect on youths and people around the globe. In order to portray their message, each author used Logos. Logos relies on logic and reason. Both author s used Logos by including the old and current data as well as showing visuals and adding quotes and opinions by reliable people in the community.

Economics Definition Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Economics Definition - Essay Example The essay "Economics Definition" discusses the definition of economics. Adam Smith defined Economics as the science of wealth. Economists define wealth as one that has â€Å"Value in use† and â€Å"Value in exchange†. Economics is the study of how wants are satisfied and decisions made when faced with limited resources. Modern economics pretty much continues along Smith’s line of analysis: ‘a nation and the people do well when the economy does well, and when the economy is in crisis or doesn't do well, the nation suffers and so do the people as they don't always get the goods and services they need.’ Microeconomics is defined at the level of individual choices. This branch of economics is mainly concerned with the decisions made by individual consumers, households, and firms and how these decisions interact with each other to form the prices of goods and services and the factors of production. This is basically a bottom up approach where looking at t he smaller picture individual's relationship to the economy remains the focus area. Macroeconomics is defined at the level of aggregate results in which we study the national income, employment, interest rates, goods and services produced, total income earned, exchange rates, prices etc. In this study, the national economy is studied and compared with global economics. Macroeconomics can be used to analyze how best to influence policy decisions and goals like economic growth, price stability, full employment and the attainment of a sustainable balance of payments.

Wednesday, October 16, 2019

Soft Systems Thinking vs. Hard Systems Thinking Essay

Soft Systems Thinking vs. Hard Systems Thinking - Essay Example Both have specific applications and uses for us humans who constantly learn from using these systems thinking. Systems thinking is a rather new concept and one that analyzes a given specific question relating to human systems or systems that involves humans in some other way. This study explores the various quirks and advantages of using these ways of thinking. It also explores how systems can be applied anywhere from everyday, mundane things to the most complicated problems ever. Systems thinking can be though of as a train of ideas and procedures that can help lessen our burden in problem solving if properly executed. Thus with this knowledge, a firm understanding is needed on how these systems work and function to the arrival of a solution. Given today's global problems, our world leaders have utilized time and again that systems thinking does work and the benefits outweighs the negative feedback from these. This study was. To compare and contrast the two different types of thinki ng systems and the way they influence our lives. This paper also manages to determine the details behind these concepts and also to have a better understanding of what systems thinking is all about and it's relevance to our modern society where problems are as common as anything else under thee sun. With this, all that if for you dear reader to go on and find out how these ways of thinking works. The term system is der... Also, one or more components may or may or may not have independent or alternate functions, but they are still part of the same system. Examples of systems are committees within a civic group, the various body organ systems, the ecosystem, socio-economic systems etc. Systems can either be natural such as the ecosystem and the body organ systems or they may be artificial such as electronic systems and farms ("What is system thinking" 2004). For a system to work, each of its components must work together in order to produce something. Its elements must complement each other and must have a certain synergy between them. Elements in a system may have direct or indirect relationships with each other. There are also system types that can be considered as open or closed. An open system's production and function can be influenced by the external environment or it can have an influence on the environment. A closed environment on the other hand is independent and may not be influenced by the external environment or it does not have an influence on the environment. Another classification of systems is physical and conceptual systems. Physical systems are systems are systems that exists materially that it, it has form, mass and is generally tangible. Conceptual systems exist theoretically and do not have form, mass or any other physical characteristic. Conceptual systems are often used for the visualization of certain ideas ("Sys tem", 2006). Another classification of systems is living or biological systems which are composed of living elements or organisms themselves, interacting or performing various functions as a whole. Non-living systems composed of the environment and

Tuesday, October 15, 2019

Economics Definition Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Economics Definition - Essay Example The essay "Economics Definition" discusses the definition of economics. Adam Smith defined Economics as the science of wealth. Economists define wealth as one that has â€Å"Value in use† and â€Å"Value in exchange†. Economics is the study of how wants are satisfied and decisions made when faced with limited resources. Modern economics pretty much continues along Smith’s line of analysis: ‘a nation and the people do well when the economy does well, and when the economy is in crisis or doesn't do well, the nation suffers and so do the people as they don't always get the goods and services they need.’ Microeconomics is defined at the level of individual choices. This branch of economics is mainly concerned with the decisions made by individual consumers, households, and firms and how these decisions interact with each other to form the prices of goods and services and the factors of production. This is basically a bottom up approach where looking at t he smaller picture individual's relationship to the economy remains the focus area. Macroeconomics is defined at the level of aggregate results in which we study the national income, employment, interest rates, goods and services produced, total income earned, exchange rates, prices etc. In this study, the national economy is studied and compared with global economics. Macroeconomics can be used to analyze how best to influence policy decisions and goals like economic growth, price stability, full employment and the attainment of a sustainable balance of payments.

Comedic material Essay Example for Free

Comedic material Essay The differences between men and women have been the source of much comedic material over the years. These same differences also add to the attraction between the sexes. Who would want to spend the rest of their lives with somebody who was exactly like them in every way, including their masculinity or feminine qualities? It is these same differences that serve as a great source of contention between brothers and sisters, mothers and sons, boyfriends and girlfriends and finally, husbands and wives. These differences and the failure to recognize their effects on the other, many times lead to fights, estrangement and finally divorce. One way in which the difference of men and woman are brought to light is in the way that we shop. And with the popularity and easy access of stores like Wal-Mart and their dozens of different categories of products, these differences are made even more apparent and thus, the possibility of strife increases. There are a number of solutions in order to overcome these fights. The elderly couple had made it that far because either one side has totally submitted to the will of the other and as a result, has been miserable since their wedding day every time they do shopping. Or, both have learned when to give in and when to stand their ground. Or, both sides have no desire to give in to the other and it is a foregone conclusion that fireworks will follow this couple’s trip to the grocery store. The two seem to enjoy the arguments and the effort that goes into them as much as anything else in their marriage. The two seem to strive off of the drama that comes from constant arguments. And lastly, there is the newlywed couple that is still in the honeymoon period and the thought of fighting over the way in which either of them shop for groceries or the notion of shopping at different stores and/or on different days, is seen as equally absurd as well. Perhaps it is asking too much for one to ask their spouse to change the way in which they think and complete their daily mundane chores. People are less resistant to change the older they get. This is especially true after ten or twenty years of marriage. The recognition of these differences are the first step in being able to put up with one’s spouse and not to let the weekly chore of grocery shopping add drama to a marriage that will have enough drama on its own. Some people will no doubt disagree with the findings of this informal study and there really is no theory that perfectly fits the millions of couples in this country but what has been discovered, to one degree or another, fits some aspect of the daily interactions that the members of one couple has with each other. This has never been more true than in the marriage of my friends, Joe and Marie Burkett. They have been married for five years now and still have not learned how to shop together. Joe has suggested that only one be responsible for the grocery shopping for the house but Marie is a romantic and loves her husband very much. She wants to take advantage of their weekends by doing things together and will not hear of this. Joe loves his wife as well but can no longer stand the stress and petty arguments that come every time, without fail, when they go to the local Wal-Mart. However, Joe cannot stand to submit to what he sees as the slow, mind numbing and inefficient way in which his wife shops. To start, Marie never makes a complete grocery list. She will write down what the house needs but it will never be a complete list. She likes to take her time when she goes to Wal-Mart since she sees it as an event to be enjoyed. One almost expects Marie to get dressed up for the occasion as there is little else to do in their small town and Marie sees going to Wal-Mart as a way to socialize with the others from the town. The Wal-Mart that they go to is a super Wal-Mart so they not only have clothes but also electronics and food as well as a place to get your hair cut, car fixed, nails done and eyes checked. Marie wants to take full advantage of this luxury and wishes to make a day of the entire experience. Despite the fact that she wrote a list before coming to the store, she has no intention of being a strict constructionist and leisurely walks up and down every isle in the attempt not to miss the newest sale on an item that she suddenly realizes she cannot live without. She wonders at the selection on every isle as her fellow customers wait for her to move in order to pass as they are much less amazed at the errand of grocery shopping. Joe is much different. He does not like to shop and will not even try his new clothes on before buying them. If he comes home and they are too tight, he would rather go on a diet than have to go back to the store and try on more clothes and this extend his pain. He makes a list before going to Wal-Mart and after having shopped at the store a few times, has memorized where everything is at. He maps out a route in his head that will allow the quickest turnaround time and propel him out of the store and towards something that we would rather want to do on his weekends. He does not need to think about what he needs. Throughout the week, he adds items to the list on the refrigerator and weights its costs with the necessity of the item since he hates wasting time almost as much as he hates wasting money. Joe prides himself in accomplishing the job in ? the time it is supposed to take with somebody not as organized as he is. He whizzes past he fellow shoppers and has no tolerance for people who seem confused while walking in the isle or those who come to the store in order to converse with friends. He hates to shop but knows that it is a necessity. But he also hates to waste time and cannot fathom spending even an hour shopping for groceries when, according to his calculations, one could easily finish the job in under 30 minutes. What aspect of better? It all depends on what view the reader takes. For people in a small town and for people who love to go shopping, such stores like Wal Mart are seen as a church with every day being Sunday. The experience and effort that goes into this is not really a chore but rather a source of fun and socialization. For the other side, every action in the completion of a necessary chore, should be done efficiently and idleness is annoying beyond belief. For a person who has decided what he wants in life, whether it is a new job or even something as mundane as items in a grocery store, any divergence from obtaining that goal is avoided at all costs and those who do not prescribe to said ideology are kept at arms length. However, this is more difficult to do when the two ideologies are married in the bodies of Joe and Marie. WORKS CITED Moir, A. (1991) The Differences Between Men and Women. New York: Random House Moir, A. (2002) Why Men Don’t Iron. New York: Random House. OUTLINE I. The differences between men and women are the source of more happiness and annoyance that any one thing in this world. II. These differences are not exemplified more than in shopping at the grocery store. A. Joe does not like to waste time in the grocery store. He strives to be efficient. He sees the confusion of others as simply an example of dumb people and has no tolerance for it.

Monday, October 14, 2019

Socio-economic Status and Health Inequalities Relationship

Socio-economic Status and Health Inequalities Relationship In this essay I will discuss the relationship between underlying social structures and health outcomes. the debates about the casual pathways between socio-economic status and health inequalities. Inequality in health is the worst inequality of all. There is no more serious inequality than knowing that youll die sooner because you are badly off (Frank Dobson / DoH, 1997a). The term health inequalities refer to the difference in health opportunities and outcomes between individuals or group of people within society. From a literature review and many studies there is information which suggests that there are inequalities in health, and that the inequality between rich and poor, termed the health gap, is continuing to grow (Smith et al., cited in Davidson, Hunt Kitzinger 2003) The National Health Service was first implemented after World War II with ideological motto from birth to grave. The National Health Service (NHS) was established as a result of the 1944 White Paper, The National Health Service was based on recommendations in the 1942 Beveridge Report which called for a state welfare system. According to William Beveridge,a national welfare state is the only way for Britain to beat five giants Want, Ignorance, Disease, squalor and Idleness. The National Health Service was set up in 1948 to provide health care for all citizens, based on need, rather then ability to pay ; providing a compressive service funded only by taxation. Initially, and mistakenly, it was predicted that demand and the cost of service would decline as illnesses were cured. In fact, the opposite happened: An ageing population a expensive new technology and drugs created new financial pressure. Despite NHS improvement and the expansion of bio medicine, facts and statistic showed that that health of nation had improved generally but the improvement had not been equal across all social classes . The most widely accepted recent study of health inequalities and social class was the Black Report of 1980, which gathered information relating to the Standardised Mortality Rates (SMR) for different social classes in Britain, based on the Registrar Generals categorization according to occupation. In 1971 the death rate for adult men in social class V was nearly twice that of adult men in social class I. The purpose of The Black Report (1980) was to investigate the problem of health inequalities in the UK. The report analysed the lifestyles and health records of people from all social classes. It suggested that the causes of health inequalities were so deep rooted that only major public expenditure would be capable of altering the pattern (Jenkin 1980). This report showed that the gap in equalities of health between lower and higher social classes was widening. The problem had to be investigated outside NHS. The key causes of inequalities in health were linked with social economic factors such as low income, unemployment, poor environment, poor education and sub standard housing. The report looked at four explanations patterns in inequality. The artifact explanation which suggests health inequalities dont really exist, but only appear to because of the way class is constructed. the black report found evidence to support the view that the higher a persons social class, the more likely it would be to find them in good health. The report used infant mortality rates, life expectancy, mental illness and causes of death of people in different social classes. But critics such as Illsley (1986) argue that the statistical connection between social class and illness exaggerates the situation. Social selection explanations suggest that it is health that determines social class rather than class determining health, as those who are healthy will experience upwards social mobility (p36) which raises the death rates and levels of illnesses and disability within the lower classes as the unhealthy are pushed down the social scale (Naidoo and Wills, 1994). On the basis of data from a National of Health and Development, Wadswroth (1986) found that seriously ill boys were more likely to suffer a fall in social class than others Social selection did not explain the disadvantages that occur at all stages of individuals life cycle, also it did not account for the social class differences in health found in childhood, when there is not much social mobility but differences in mortality. (Marsh and Keating, 2006) Shaw et al (1999) argues that those from poorer backgrounds are faced with different economic, social and employment factor which can cause ill health. This shows that class pos ition shapes health, not vice versa. (Giddens, 2006) The behavioural / cultural approach, suggests that poorer health in classes IV and V is a consequence of less healthy behaviour associated with the lower classes, for example smoking and excessive drinking. The cultural / behavioural explanations stresses that differences in health are best understood as being the result of cultural choices made by individuals or groups in the population. In other words , inequalities are rooted in the behaviour and lifestyles of the individual, and those suffering from poor health have different attitudes, values and beliefs which mean that they do not look after themselves The behavioural / cultural approach, suggests that poorer health in classes IV and V is a consequence of less healthy behaviour associated with the lower classes, for example smoking and excessive drinking. The structural/material approach is that the material situation of the lower class is the most important factor in determining their poorer health.. It claims that poor health is the result of hazards to which some people have no choice but to be exposed given the present distribution of income and opportunity (Shaw et al, 1999). Poverty is the key factor that links a range of health risks. It is a known fact that poorer people have worse diets and worse housing condition and are more likely to be unemployed and generally have a more stressed life which may lead to increase smoking and drinking habits, potentially dangerous for long term health. This approach put emphasis in the circumstances which people make their choices are strongly affected by the extent of inequality existing in our society. Poverty limit choices, satisfying immediate gratification; it is about being denied the expectation of decent health, education, shelter, a social life and a sense of self esteem Marsh (200 0). Poverty and health are definitely linked and not only are the poor more likely to suffer from ill health and premature death, but poor health and disability are themselves recognised as causes of poverty (Blackburn1991, p7. Marmot Wilkinson try to explain that social hierarchy and income/wealth inequalities causes stress and ill health, operating trough mind/emotional pathways affecting peoples well being (lecture notes ). Health improvements have been made synonymous with income equality, as Wilkinson argues is to improve social cohesion and reduce the social divisions Richard Wilkinson (1997) argues that mortality, which is influenced by health, is affected more by the relative living standards of that country. He argues that mortality is related more closely to relative income within countries than in differences in absolute income between them. Statistics show that mortality rates have a trend of being lower in countries, which have less income inequality. He thinks that long-term economic growth rates seem to have no relation to any long-term rise in life expectancy Acheson Report (1998) was another important study into health inequality which was commissioned by the New Labour government in 1997. The main purpose of Acheson report was to update the findings of the Black Report and particularly to advice on priorities for policy development (Ham, 2004). It was a comprehensive survey of the disadvantaged. The findings mirrored those of the Black Report that the root cause of inequalities was poverty. Over the last 20 years death rates have fallen among both men and women and across all social groups. However, the difference in rates between those at the top and bottom of the social class has widened. The conclusion of the report was that the gap between richest and poorest had to be reduced. Davies (2001) explains that: The Labour government came into power in 1997 with a commitment to tackle health inequalities, and offered a third way with regard to policies on health (p183). The major health strategy published after the Acheson Report was the White Paper Saving Lives: Our healthier Nation (DoH 1999a) in July 1999. It endorsed the Acheson Report by emphasising the need to reduce inequalities in health. At the same time as the White Paper, Reducing Health Inequalities: an action report was published. It referred to policies for a fairer society, building healthy communities, education, employment, housing, transport, crime and healthcare (DoH 1999b). Later that year Opportunityfor all- Tackling poverty and social exclusion was published with the aim to eradicate child poverty in twenty years time. In November 1999, the Sure Start programme began to promote the physical, intellectual, social and emotional development of young children and their families (Sure Start 1999). By May 2003, around 500 Sure Start programmes were in action, reaching about one third of all children aged under four who were living in poverty. Not only do these programmes promote health and family support services but early education also. Another government initiative aimed at improving the education of disadvantaged children is the Education Action Zones. And to encourage children from low-income families to remain on at school an Education Maintenance Allowance was introduced (Graham 2001: 108). The governments main target for poverty was to reduce the number of children in low income households by at least a quarter by 2004, as a contribution towards the broader target of halving child poverty by 2010 and eradicating it by 2020; but by 2001/2002, midway through the period set by the target, the government were only two fifths of the way to meeting this (Palmer et al 2003). Tax and benefit reforms were also introduced by the government, targeted at low income families with children. As paid employment is seen as the best way to avoid poverty, the government developed and reformed many policies to overcome barriers to employment. The governments biggest investment was  £5.2 billion in New Deal initiatives, aimed at promoting employment for different groups but especially young people who have been unemployed for six months and people over twenty five who have been unemployed for two years or more (Graham 2001). The aim of the initiative was to increase long-term employability by offering short-term employment opportunities. In April of 1999, the government introduced the first ever National minimal wage to the UK, this policy was aimed at reducing in-work poverty and decreasing the number of individuals dependent on social security. Conclusion Numerous government reports such as The Black Report, (1980) The Health Divide (1987) and The Acheson Report (1998) as well as official statistics have all related class and ill health. They have revealed massive class inequalities in health, by stating that nearly every kind of illness and disease is linked to class. Both the Black Report and Acheson Report identified policies to improve the circumstances of children as an essential condition for the reduction of health inequalities. Individuals in the lower socio-economic class may find themselves tight in a lifestyle cycle where problems that contribute to health inequalities remain unchanged. Loy payment, poor social housing, lack of qualification. are the important key that need tackling by government .it is not appropriate to educate people on healthier lifestyle choices ,ehen most of the time these choices are not avalible to them. Key problems that need tackling by the government are the continuous problems of low pay, lack of qualifications and the issues faced by those people living in poor social housing. It is not just enough to educate people on healthier lifestyle choices, when often these choices are not available to them. Taylor and Field conclude: There is now a general acceptance in research and policy circles that health inequalities are socially caused, and the major detriment is socio-economic inequality within society (2003:61).

Sunday, October 13, 2019

Ozone Depletion Essays -- essays research papers fc

Ozone Depletion A Case for â€Å"Ignoring the Facts†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Ozone forms a layer of the earth’s atmosphere that protects us from the sun’s deadly ultraviolet rays. During the last decade there has been a scare set forth by environmental enthusiasts that Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) destroy the ozone layer. Although there has been no evidence of any CFC destruction of the ozone layer there is an international stoppage on using CFCs, as well as an executive order set forth by Clinton to limit the sell and use of CFCs in the United States. These bans are unnecessary , since they are merely based on fear and politics. Basing the ban on evidence can not be possible, because there is no factual evidence.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This executive order is not only futile, but ridiculous. Facts are the ozone layer is not depleting due to CFCs or any other manmade chemical. Qualified scientists have proven the whole notion of the ozone layer is not something fixed and finite to be destroyed faster and slower rates. It is simply not a depletable resource like a fossil fuel. The process by which CFCs are supposed to deplete it is highly speculative and has never been observed to take place, and even if it did, the effect would be small compared to what happens naturally.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ozone is dynamic. It is constantly being created and destroyed, and as long as the sun emits rays the process will continue. Ozone is the Trioxide molecule (O3), which is created by photons radiated from the sun. A normal oxygen molecule (O2) consists of two oxygen atoms, in diatomic form. High energy ultraviolet radiation known as UV-C can split one of these molecules, through a process known as photodissociation, into two free oxygen atoms. These atoms then join with a third oxygen and form ozone. Some ozone is found at ground level, but most occurs in the â€Å"Ozone Layer,† a concentration of O3 approximately 30 miles above the Earth’s surface. Most ozone is produced in the tropics where ultraviolet flux is the strongest.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ozone is destroyed by chemical reactions that convert the O3 molecule into O2. The reaction that causes this is mostly nitrogen dioxide (produced in part by high altitude cosmic rays), through ultraviolet dissociation by the same UV-C that creates ozone, and also by a less energetic band know as UV-B, which... ...e negative effects of CFCs are in the tens of thousands, there are no grants to study the positive effects of ultraviolet flux. It is curious that all the grant proposals written by scientists concerning the other side of the CFC issue are being turned down. Is ozone depletion created by political/economical issues? It has not been proven by facts—just ignoring the facts. All this while the media plays on the fears of the general public. As Bob Holzknecht, a CFC engineer for twenty years observes, â€Å"Nobody’s interested in reality. Everyone who knows anything stands to gain. The public will end up paying through the nose, as always, but the public is unorganized and uniformed. Bibliography Begley, Shannon, â€Å"Is the Ozone Hole in Our Heads?† Newsweek, 122, October 11, 1993.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Bush, David A., â€Å" Ozone Anxiety: It’s a White Thing,† Harpers Magazine, 287, December 1993.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Kerr, Richard A., â€Å"Stratospheric Injection by Volcanic Eruptions,† Science, 260, May 21, 1993   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Zurer, Pamela S., â€Å"Researchers Lack Data on Trends in UV Radiation at Earth’s Surface,† Chemical and Engineering News, 71, July 26, 1993

Saturday, October 12, 2019

Essay --

Paul’s first contact with a major center of slavery may have been in the city of Tyre. Groups of Gentile slave of both sexes from Syria and beyond came to Jerusalem through Tyre’s slave-market. He passed through Tyre on his way to Jerusalem. Paul went on to Judea and Jerusalem. In Judea and Jerusalem, Paul undoubtedly saw many slaves working in a wide variety of activities, including positions of high responsibility in the court of Herod and the families of high priest. Slaves varied place to place which determined the slavery population and gender. Around Jerusalem itself it seemed to have been no industries requiring of slaves nor many rural estates which used slave-labor in large numbers. Within the city Paul saw great number of domestic and civil slaves, both Jews and Gentile. One of the places Paul visited was Tarsus. In Tarsus where Paul was born was mostly woman since the type of work was mostly linen weaving, dyeing, leather cutting, and carpentry. Paul travelled from Tarsus to Corinth and saw many different types of slaves on this journey. From Tarsus, Paul continued on to Corinth. In Jerusalem as well as in Corinth, Paul saw slaves whose special abilities made it favorable to their owners to rent them by the day or by contract. In short Paul, was already acquainted with slavery before he left Jerusalem. When Paul traveled Asia Minor he saw an increasingly large slave population in the cities where the total of the slave population may have been about one third of the entire body of residents. In Ephesus slaves were involved in the widest thinkable range of activities, including working in the local wholesale and distributing agencies and managing retail stores. Very commonly, people were engaged in manufacturing, dis... ...hrough the imagery of slavery. b. Philemon, Letter to- written between 58AD and 60AD while Paul was in Roman prison. i. The letter was written to Philemon, who was a wealthy Gentile Christian in Colossae who became a believer a believer under Paul’s ministry (philem 19) ii. The heart of the letter centers upon Onesimus, Philemon’s slave who somehow wronged his master (philem 18), made his way to Paul in prison (philem 9), was converted (philem 10), and became a useful partners (philem 11, 13) But under the existing laws governing slaver, Paul knows that Onesimus must be returned to his rightful owner. Paul implores Philemon not only to receive (philem 17, forgive (philem 18: see Forgiveness) and acknowledge Onesimus’ new status as a fellow believer (philem 16), but to relinquish all claims upon Onesimus so that he can continue serving with Paul. (Philem 13, 21).

Friday, October 11, 2019

Sport Policy and Development- Discuss the Relationship Between Sport and Crime Reduction and Critically Assess the Benefits/Limitations That Sport Presents in Achieving Positive Results.

Sport Policy and Development- Summative 1 Discuss the relationship between sport and crime reduction and critically assess the benefits/limitations that sport presents in achieving positive results. In this piece of literature there will be an in depth discussion of the complicated relationship between sport and crime. There will be a lot of focus on the debate of whether sport plays a positive role in crime reduction in society, and in what ways sport can be used as a method to lower crime in society.This essay will endeavour to critically examine both the benefits and limitations of sport to achieve positive results in reducing crime in society. The fact is that crime in society isn’t a straight forward issue, it is extremely complex. In this section there will be an assessment of the reasons for why sport is believed to either reduce or influence crime. There are multiple theories to suggest that sport can be used in society as a mechanism to produce a positive influence ov er crime in all areas of society.There are many theories for why communities see a reduction in criminal activities when good sports policies are implemented and carried out. One of the theories for this was explored in Mutz and Baur` investigation in 2009 into youths’ involvement in conflict and violence and the role of sport in preventing it. They wrote about the crime opportunity theory, they said that offenders often act â€Å"in a purposive and instrumental- rational manner insofar as they evaluate the cost and benefit that might accompany an offence in a given situation. In other words the perceived likelihood of detection and the effected severity of the punishment define the cost of a crime. They go on to say that the presence of people significantly reduces the likelihood of crimes being committed. This theory has been used to prove that sport can reduce crime, particularly in youths. It is evident to see that deviant actions are dramatically reduced in the presence of authority; figures that monitor the adolescents whilst taking part in physical activity. In many cases this time can be used to witness youths’ misdemeanours and negatively reinforce these actions therefore bettering them (Mutz and Baur,. 009). However, there are researchers that oppose this notion that this theory reduces crime in society as a whole but instead most of the time simply delays the crime until away from that environment. An article in `Sport Illustrated by Jeff Benedict (2010) spoke about how instances of serious felonies perpetrated by college athletes who train round the clock are on the increase. This not only directly contradicts the opportunity theory but Benedict goes on to talk about how these athletes were protected by their sporting status and received reduced sentences or no sentence at all.This suggests that sport is possibly increasing crime due to the providing immunity and disrespect for the law in effect glorifying criminal activity (Benedict ,. 2010). Another theory that supports these structured supervised sports sessions for youth in the attempt to reduce crime is Fred Coalter` â€Å"Antidote to boredom theory†. This theory is a common sense assumption on the old phrase â€Å"the devil finds work for idle hands† and links in with the crime opportunity theory.It suggests that â€Å"much adolescent crime is opportunity led and giving people something (hopefully constructive) to do hopefully keeps them out of harm’s way†. In other words in the promotion of sport and a productive activity it therefore reduces the temptation to participate in deviant activity (Coalter,. 2007). It has been theorised that young people, the majority of which are adolescent males, display aggressive or violent tendencies whilst frustrated or angry, this is said to be due to an instincts that we are born with. It was famously stated by Sigmund Freud (1925) that in certain scenarios we are â€Å"born to be bad† .In more recent years this theory has been proven to be indeed fact and under further investigation it is thought that when a person behaves aggressively these actions release hormones resulting in catharsis, a word derived from the Greek word katharsis which means to purge/cleanse the body. Behaving like this reduces pent up negative tension; this in turn enables temper regulation more easily. Sport replicates these feelings of aggression and simulates the catharsis of aggression therefore releasing frustration that leads to a state known as `emotional cleansing`.This acts as a positive tool with adolescents so that aggression is released in a productive and safe environment and suggests that sports that require more aggression, such as all contact sports should see a reduced participation in crime from those individuals (Widmeyer et al,. 2002). The Social Bonding theory as theorised by Hirschi in 1969 consists of 4 elements these being `attachment to families, commitment to social norms, institutions and involvement in activities and the belief that these things are important`.This theory suggests people who produce social ties with positive role models; these being either friends or family, particularly from a young age promote socially acceptable behaviours and attitudes and are reinforced more effectively. These behaviours and attitudes could be any or all of the 4 elements that in turn reduce the likelihood of criminal participation. Commitment or responsibility inspires pride in one’s self and helps promote self-confidence.Involvement in conventional activities such as sport can provide life direction and a provide focus for people at risk of committing crimes. Finally, belief is the acceptance of moral validity of the central social- value system (Wiatrowski et al, . 1981). Sport is a great medium to induce the social bonding perspective onto society because sport ethics are a mirror image of those we find in every day society (e. g. hard work, abiding rules, teamwork etc.. ) therefore it tightens bonds to moral codes and in turn limits the likelihood of committing criminal acts (Miethe and Meier,. 994 ). The social learning theory (SLT) suggests that individual behavioural patterns particularly that of minors are heavily influenced by observation, imitation and reinforcement (Grusec,. 1997). This theory provides arguments for both sides of this argument. On the one hand an argument can be made that contact and noncontact sports can teach strong moral codes to play by the rules or suffer negative consequences, work hard at everything you do in order to receive just rewards, and maintain interpersonal skills in order to maintain strong relationships that help teamwork.These positive behaviours and attitudes are then in theory adopted in to other areas of life, therefore reducing crime participation (Biel and Bienne,. 2008). For example studies have shown that contact sport if taught correctly can display a positive reductio ns in crime, Trulson found that the traditional philosophical and psychological elements were vital to be effective in reducing the risk factors associated with offending, if these elements are removed combat sport was instead associated with an increase in criminal behaviour.This is a prime example of SLT (Endresen and Olweus,. 2005). This evidence suggests that sport isn’t as clear cut as that and in fact sport in most scenarios promotes aggression and even encourages violence towards other people, but it is acceptable because it is in a sports environment. Examples of this could be manufactured fouls in football or the more obvious displays of violence in contact sports. Some theorists believe that SLT and crime participation can be related to these sports because of the skills and attitudes taught in order to be successful within the game e. g. win at all costs†, intimidate, be strong and powerful to get your own way, defend team mates. All these can lead to individ uals being more likely to become involved in violence than those people that have other leisure activities (Hickley,. 2008). Quite clearly there is what some might perceive as very contentious points raised in many areas of this study, and a lot of literature seems to have an abundance of contradictory dimensions. Having read various pieces of literature it is easy to see why there is so much disagreement where crime reduction and sport initiatives are concerned.An example of these controversies is in the first point raised, that sport provides an environment in the spot light where people can take part in productive, non-deviant activities and possibly allow social workers to enforce positive attitudes to law abiding and team work. However, to say that this prevents crime full stop is naive and some researchers suggest that methods such as late night basketball is not economically viable in relation the amount of crime in prevents (Hartman and Depro,. 2006).Research also suggest th at sport as an antidote for boredom falls across similar traits in the sense that yes there is an increase in crime particularly amongst youths during periods of perceived boredom and yes sport does act as a remedy for this. However this only displays short term results in reducing crime in a percentage of adolescent males and virtually no females regardless of age. This is because as soon as the youths get bored of the activities very often they would revert back to manufactured excitement in the medium of crime and deviant activity (Levermore,. 2011)The second contentious issue concerns the social learning theory’s effect on crime through sport. The positives and negatives of sports’ influences on crime are heavily debated in research of this type especially within contact sport communities. As discussed earlier sport provides an environment were positive attitudes and behaviours can be learnt, refined and reinforced particularly within crime `at risk` areas and demo nstrate positive results. However, studies show that contact sports display opposite results where untroubled youths are concerned and can in fact increase crime participation within these groups.This is said to run the risk of `overdosing` minor offenders with interventions which is known to increase crime participation (Jenkins and Ellis,. 2011 ). This of course creates a paradox because if contact sport interventions are only appropriate for at risk communities, should they only be accessible to individuals at the risk of offending this would obviously produce social stigmas, labelling and social segregation leading to possible social tensions that incite conflict.Or should this particular policy area available to everyone at risk seducing those without prior criminal involvement with the violence of contact sport therefore providing the potential for corruption? However when considering contact sports popularity in society there does seem to be a lack of interventions that use i t as a tool to reduce criminal activity.The main limiting factors when questioning the positives and negatives of sport and its effectiveness as a crime reduction strategy in society is that more empirical research into the short and long-term benefits is needed along with a correct understanding of the type of programme that is appropriate for different social groups and the strategies that can effectively implement long lasting effects, merely establishing a statistical association for short periods of time in insufficient (Nichols,. 1999).The second limiting factor is the lack of research as regards to the effect of sport and intervention to crime in the older community and all female groups. There is virtually no evidence to suggest that sport helps female offenders. However this may be because statistically speaking males are responsible for 74% of crimes committed and it is common sense that initiatives are aimed at culprits, (British Crime Statistics) although a feminist pers pective in this policy area could be beneficial (Coakley and Pike,. 009) As these points suggest, making the policy with the aim to reduce crime in society is very difficult and it seems that there will never be any middle ground on the subject. However with all the academic and statistical literature taken into account there was a common theme in the majority of them. The conclusion that most studies drew was that there is still no evidence to suggest that sport has an influence over crime in society in either direction.Smith and Waddington concluded that â€Å"despite vast numbers of such community schemes currently in operation in the UK, there is still very little evidence for their effectiveness in reducing and preventing crime and drug abuse †(Smith and Waddington,. 2004). This is supported by various other academic articles (Caruso,. 2011, Coalter,. 2005, Nichols and Crow,. 2004). In my opinion the best way to combat crime is via top quality coaching in communities tha t teach appropriate values that sports uphold and therefore can be transferred into everyday society.Secondly, the correlation between contact sports, physical violence and aggression in society and reoffending criminality is too high and causes to many social problems, therefore I feel it would be better if initiatives are designed around non-contact sports, so when unnecessary aggression is portrayed it is reinforced with negative consequences e. g. card, sending off. This is transferable to everyday life.Thirdly, I believe that sport crime interventions are the best resource we have in terms of cost efficiency, documented research and developed programmes and it is likely that any other initiatives would show the exact same results if not worse. With this in mind we should heed the evidence that suggests the best way to target crime in society when using the medium of sport is by targeting the impressionable youth community, we should continue this focus. However for more decisiv e conclusions to be drawn from studies in this area there needs to be more extensive, more representative and more investment in longitudinal studies.References D. J Begg, J. D Langley, T. Moffittand S. W. Marshall. (1996). Sport and delinquency: an examination of the deterrence hypothesis in a longitudinal study. British Journal of Sport Medicine. 30 (4), 335-341. J. Benedict . (2010). An alarming number of college athletes charged with serious crime. Available: http://sportsillustrated. cnn. com/2010/writers/jeff_benedict/09/08/athletes. crime/index. html. Last accessed 2nd February . Biel and Bienne. (2008). Evidence in the field of Sport and Development: An overview. Schwery Consulting . 1 (1), 4-14 . R. Caruso. 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